SYNTAX (BY DYOFICA)

Let’s Talk About Linguistics

The 4^th Discussion

Syntax

Definition base on experts :

• Syntax is the branch of grammar which is concerned with the study of words in sentences and of the means by which such relationship are shown, e.g., word order or inflexion. (R.R.K. Hartman F.C. Stork, op cit., pages. 213).

• Syntax is concerned with the discovery of basic sentences types and with the description of the possible substitutions for each element of the basic types. (Mario Pei and Frank Gaynor, op cit., pages. 39)

• Syntax is the study, and rules of the relation of words to one another as expressions of ideas and parts of the structures of sentences; the study and science of sentence construction. (Archilbald A. Hill, op cit., pages 211).

• Syntax :  the largest level of structure is the clause, which can be analyzed into what are called clause functions: subject, predicator, object, complement, and adverbial. (Charles F. Meyer. Introduce to Linguistics. Pages 8).

a.     Syntax link.

Words as forming the unity of the sentence have syntax link that consist of :

1.    Positional relations

This is easy to be observed.  The relation is clear in form order of words in a sentence, it is order of words placing as symbol in form of written on paper.

2.    Relations of co-occurance.

It’s mean that words of words’ kinds always need from others kinds. The summary is:

·       Noun need verb

·       Determiner needs noun

·       Adjective needs noun.

3.   Relation of substitutability

This relation has 2 parts :

·       Replacement a word with another word from same kind

·       Replacement a word in a sentence with a certain word

b. Word and kind of word.

There are 3 approaches for discuss about word :

1.    Semantic approach

Word is defined “A linguistics unit that has single meaning”. The complication is how to assure the single meaning.

2.    Phonology approach

This approach is started from reality that speech sound from unity of sound that fragmented, even though in speech sound, definition of word separation isn’t exactly and as easy as writing language. Word separation is often suggested with watch pause between words. And it’s not general. In certain languages, it’s called, fixed stress. It is accent that is sure in certain syllable. In another explanation, in English that words as verb usually, is not given stressing, but controlled by word stressing before or after it. It’s called juncture

3.    Word as a unity are separated and can’t be separated.

This is opinion by Bloomfield who gave definition of word as a minimum free form or  a linguistics unit which doesn’t permit the insertion of other linguistic material. Word is linguistic material that difficult to defined accurately. Linguistics isn’t able to provide word definition as universal. However, it’s not mean that the word has degree of linguistics and psychology.

a   c. Immediate Constituent Analysis

This analysis is a basic for syntax. For example, She went to Pekanbaru, the immediate constituent is she and went to Pekanbaru . Went to Pekanbaru has immediate constituent, went and to Pekanbaru. If it’s drawn in diagram is :

She             went           to                Pekanbaru

 

From example proofs what R.H. Robins said :

Sentences are not merely strings of words in an acceptable order and “making sense”; they are structured into successive components, consisting of groups of words, contiguous and discontiguous, and of single words. These groups and single words are called constituents, and when they are considered as part of successive unraveling of a sentence, they are known, it’s immediate constituents. 

a   d.Endosentris construction and eksosentris construction.

In this analysis, we see that combination between a word and another word follow patterned rules. The words are arranged in endosentris construction and eksosentris construction. The difference is if the construction is accordant with one or more constituent, it’s called endosentris construction. If it’s not accordant, it’s called eksosentris construction.

In English, eksosentris construction as in :

·       Preposition phrase : e.g. to London, for Him.

·   Connective words which is followed by clause : e.g. when I was young, because I like it.

e.g. :  Phrase boys and girls (noun + conjunction + noun) is coordinative. Because the  boys and girls can be replaced by  boys  or girls.

While, in English endosentris construction consist of 2 parts :

·       Sub-ordinative

·       Coordinative

e.g. : phrase lazy boys (adjective + noun), this phrase is not accordant with one of unsure (lazy or boys)

e.     Transformation analysis

 

Chomsky’s theory of generative transformational grammar was the first to force psychologist to reconsider their whole approach to the study of language behavior and so heralded the psycholinguistic ‘revolution’ (Judith Green, oc cit., pages 15).

1.    Linguistics’ theory

Chomsky wrote :

In particular it seems to me impossible to accept the view that linguistic behavior is a matter of habit, that is slowly acquired by reinforcement, association, and generalization, or that linguistic concepts can be specified in terms of a space of elementary, physically, defined criteria attributes. ‘language isn’t a habit structure’.

2.    Transformations

In English, there are sentences which have same structure but different meaning. Grammar is able to explain this case.

e.g. :

a.     Jeon is easy to please.

b.    Jeon is eager to please.

The way of syntax, both of the sentences have same outside-structure. The above sentences can be said :

a.     Jeon is easy to please

1)    It is easy to please Jeon.

2)    To please Jeon is easy.

While (b) if it’s said like 1) and 2), it’s very wrong.

b.    Jeon is eager to please

1)    It’s eager to please Jeon.

2)    To please Jeon is eager.

3.    Generative

Owen Thomas said :

 The English language is made up of an infinite number of sentences. Every individual sentence, however, is finite in length. And every sentence is constructed from a relatively limited number of elements.

If be drawn, structure of TG is :

1.    Syntax theory

Chomsky divides 3 base rules to get grammatical sentences :

a.     Phrase structure rules

b.    Transformational rules

c.     Morphonemic rules

Where, only  the phrase structure rules will be discussed. The Phrase Structure Rules is a unit of rule to follow how the sentences are arranged with patterned grammar. In analyze sentences, TG uses tree diagram.

Notes :

P = Phrase Structure ; S = Sentences ; SM = Sentence Modifier (e,g. yes, no, certainly, naturally, maybe, obviously, etc) ; NP = Noun Phrase ; VP = Verb Phrase ; Nuc = Nucleus ; Aux = Auxiliary ; N = Nominal ; Det = Determiner ; PL = Plural ; MV = Main Verbs ; Intens = Intensifier ;  AP = Adjective Phrase

P1 : S                   (SM) Nuc

P2 : Nuc              NP + VP

P3 : Aux + MV (manner) (place) (time) (reason)

P4 : Aux               tense (M) (have+ en) (be+ing)

P5 :  NP               (Det) N (PI)

P6 : AP                 (Intens) Adj.

For example :

a.     Gramatical Categories

1.    Number

This number  is grammatical categories that gives differences about singular, dual, and plural.

e.g : 

·       verb as in :  the cat runs away ; the cats run away. Pointer word as in : this cat ; these cats

·       term of countable-uncountable nouns. there are some nouns can’t get a  and an. and have no plural form. e.g. butter, petrol, water, etc.

·       noun of multitude. E.g. the cabinet consists of ten members (collective) ; the cabinet have decided to hold the meeting next week (noun of multitude).

·       Noun in plural . e.g. people, cattle, poultry, etc.

2.    Gender

In English, there are suffixes –ess as in below, but these are lexis, not gender:

Male	Female
Host	Hostess
Jews	Jewess
prince	Princess
Master	mistress
lad	Lass
negro	Negress
lion	lioness

Those are derivative, not grammatical. So that, we can’t analogous as in : Teacheress, doctoress, kingess, etc. to show the gender, we can also change with the front of or the final of the words show the gender. As in :

Male	Female
grandfather	Grandmother
landlord	Landlady
Cock-sparrow	Hen-sparrow

And there is exception for : bridegroom (male) , bridge (female) ; widow (male) , widower (female) , fox (male) , vixen (female).

3.    Tense

Tense is grammatical verb  categories that is stated  with differences of grammatical and depend on when is done and when is pronounced in a sentence. As morphology in English, there are only 2 tenses , they are present  and past , while perfect  and progressive are shown with using of to be and to have. There is no future tense  in English.

There are summary about of future tense:

·       I shall, you will, they will, we shall are only conventional things.

·       Shall and will  are helping words that have almost same function as may, can.

·       Will is used not only to show future time, as in :

Ø Willingness  : I’ll come

Ø Custom : she’ll sit 4 hours

Ø Possibility  : that’ll be Jeon

Ø General truth : Oil will float on water.

Past Tense

Past tense not only shows that a activity is done in the past.

·       It follows rule of sequence of tense in indirect sentences. E.g. he said that he went to Bandung every day.

·       Point of impossibility or lack of possibility, politeness, as in :

Ø Politeness : I wanted to ask you something

Ø Willingness in impossibility : I wish you were here

Ø Impossibility : if it rained today, I would stay at home.

b.    Concord and government

The other things to show structure of sentences are :

1)    Concord

There are some of terms for this concord, are : agreement, congruence, and correspondence. This concord can be there in grammatical categories as in number, case, gender, noun, etc. concord in English especially appear in grammatical categories of number between subject and verb.

2)    Government

Government or reaction, or sometimes is called syntactic regimen is syntax goods, with this thing form of certain words inflection are fixed by other words in a construction. So, the word are fixed should have case, mode, or certain grammatical. In English, this term of government only for pronouns. Preposition and verb arrange certain form of pronouns’ pattern, depend on syntax link.

c.     Subject, predicate, object.

Here is definition of subject / predicate from Nesfield :

“the word or words denoting the person or thing about which something is said are called subject of the sentence. The word or words which say something about person or thing denoted by subject are called the predicate.

While, Quirk  said summary :

“the subject of the sentence has a close general relation to “what is being discussed”, the “theme” of the sentence, with the normal implication that something new (the predicate) is being said about a “subject” that has already been introduced in earlier sentence.