APPLIED LINGUISTICS
Well guys, in the last discussion I
have explained about Pure Linguistics. But today, i am going to discuss about one
of Applied Linguistics’ branches, which it makes me wonder of it. Actually, i
am so interested about History Science and Archaeology. And I have talked before
in my short profile, haven’t i?. So that’s way, i am going to tell you about a
science that linked between Archaeology and Applied Linguistics. That is
Epigraphy. Here we go.
EPIGRAPHY
Epigraphy is a science that is also
one of branches of Applied Linguistics. Epigraphy discusses about ancient
writings on stones or metals, and they are well-known as “inscriptions”. This
study consists of forms and kinds of letter, language used in the inscriptions,
and content of the inscriptions. Epigraphy intended that the inscriptions can
be found in excavation that can be read. An expert of Epigraphy is well-known
as “Epigraph”. An Epigraph has to be able to analyze the inscriptions and be
able to read ancient written, can be ancient letters, or even ancient
languages. The task of an epigraph is not only examines the inscriptions that
have not been published, but also re-observe the inscriptions have been
published in temporary transcript. Then, the epigraph must translate it into
language used this moment, so that other observers, especially historians can
use the data contained in the inscriptions. In carrying his duties, epigraphy
experts have met many obstacles. According to Indonesian archaeologist who
pursue the field of epigraphy is Drs. Hasan Djafar, the first problem is many
inscriptions, especially stone inscription, which have been already worn. So,
that’s very difficult to read them. Epigraph has to read the parts are worn out
many times to obtain a satisfactory reading. By mastering the shape of an
ancient letter with all the curves, and constantly comparing the letters were
worn out with the letters are still clear, an epigraphy tries to obtain reading
as complete. Second problem is, epigraphy is faced with the time to translate
the inscriptions. Knowledge of ancient languages in the inscriptions is still
not enough to understand the meaning contained in the scripts fully.
So far, you still confuse why I am
talking about Epigraphy. While, my article entitled is “Applied Linguistics”,
right?. We have known in the past discussion, Linguistics is a science that
discusses about languages. And above, I explained that Epigraphy is a science
that discusses about ancient letter and languages. It means, Linguistics is
very important to understand ancient languages. In this term, knowledge about
rules of sounds’ changes and sounds’ correspondence is helpful to keep track of
archaic words that are no longer used today. So, even though an archaeologist
can get information from the inscriptions, it cannot be separated by role of
linguist (in this term is an epigraph).
The science of epigraphy has been developing steadily since
the 16th century. Principles of epigraphy vary culture by culture, and the
infant science in European hands concentrated on Latin inscriptions at first.
Individual contributions have been made by epigraphers such as Georg
Fabricius (1516–1571); August Wilhelm Zumpt (1815–1877); Theodor
Mommsen (1817–1903); Emil Hübner
(1834–1901); Franz Cumont (1868–1947); Louis Robert (1904–1985).
The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum,
begun by Mommsen and other scholars, has been published in Berlin since 1863,
with wartime interruptions. It is the largest and most extensive collection of
Latin inscriptions. New fascicles are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions
continues. The Corpus is arranged geographically: all inscriptions from
Rome are contained in volume 6. This volume has the greatest number of
inscriptions; volume 6, part 8, fascicle 3 was just recently published (2000).
Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered
inscriptions are published, often in Latin, not unlike the biologists' Zoological
Record— the raw material of history.
Greek epigraphy has unfolded in the hands of a different
team, with different corpora. There are two. The first is Corpus
Inscriptionum Graecarum of which four volumes came out, again at Berlin,
1825-1877. This marked a first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek
inscriptions copied from all over the Greek-speaking world. Only advanced
students still consult it, for better editions of the texts have superseded it.
The second, modern corpus is Inscriptiones Graecae arranged
geographically under categories: decrees, catalogues, honorary titles, funeral
inscriptions, various., all presented in Latin, to preserve the international
neutrality of the field of classics.
Other such series include the Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum
(Etruscan inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Crucesignatorum Terrae Sanctae
(Crusaders' inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Insularum Celticarum,
(Celtic inscriptions), Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum (Iranian
inscriptions), "Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia" and "Royal
Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period"(Sumerian and Akkadian
inscriptions) and so forth.
Egyptian hieroglyphs were solved using the Rosetta Stone,
which was a multilingual stele in Classical Greek, Demotic Egyptian and
Classical Egyptian hieroglyphs. The work was done by the French scholar, Jean-François Champollion, and the British
scientist Thomas Young.
The interpretation of Maya
hieroglyphs was lost as a result of the Spanish Conquest of Central
America. However, recent work by Maya epigraphers and linguists has yielded a
considerable amount of information on this complex writing system
Form
Materials and technique
Materials
inscriptions were commonly incised on stone or marble, on metal, or on wood (though this last material has hardly ever survived, except in Egypt), or on terracotta. In Egypt and Mesopotamia hard stones were frequently used for the purpose, and the inscriptions are therefore well preserved and easy to read. In Greece the favourite material, especially in Athens, was white marble, which takes an admirably clear lettering, but is liable to weathering of the surface if exposed, and to wear if rebuilt into pavements or similar structures. Many other kinds of stone, both hard and soft, were often used, especially crystalline limestones, which do not easily take a smooth surface, and which, therefore, are often difficult to decipher, owing to accidental marks or roughness of the material.
The metal most commonly used for
inscriptions was bronze:
flat tablets of this were often made for affixing to the walls of temples and
other buildings. Occasionally such tablets were made of silver
or gold;
and inscriptions were often incised on vessels made of any of these metals.
Inscriptions on metal were nearly always incised, not cast. An important class
of inscriptions are the legends on coins; these were struck from the die. (cf. numismatics.)
Clay was very extensively used for inscriptions in Mesopotamia and in Crete. In this case the
symbols were incised or impressed on specially prepared tablets when the clay
was soft, and it was subsequently hardened by fire. In Greece, many
inscriptions on vases were painted before firing, in that case often having
reference to the scenes represented, or incised after firing; potsherds (ostraka)
were often used as a cheap writing material. Inscriptions were also often
impressed from a mould upon wet clay before firing, in the case of tiles, amphora
handles, etc., and in these cases often supply valuable information as to the
buildings to which they belong or the place from which they took their origin
Styles of cutting
Early inscriptions, which are often amateur work, are
frequently very irregular in their cutting. But in almost all examples of later
work, the inscriptions are evidently cut by professionals, and there are
definite styles and methods belonging to various places and periods. In Egypt,
for instance, the hieroglyphs are carefully and delicately cut in
early times, and in later periods become more careless and conventional. In
Greece, the best work was done in the 5th and 4th centuries BC in Athens; the
letters were all exact and regular in shape, with no adventitious ornaments,
and were, especially in the 5th century, usually exactly aligned with the
letters above and below, as well as those on each side. At that time all the
strokes were made of equal thickness, but in the 4th century BC and later there
came in the custom of holding the chisel obliquely to the surface, thus
producing a wedge-shaped stroke. A similar custom in Mesopotamia gave rise to
the so-called cuneiform system. On metal inscriptions in Greece this
same effect appears earlier than stone or marble. In the 3rd century and later
it becomes common to introduce apices or ornamental ends to the strokes, a
custom which prevails to the present day in our ordinary capital letters. The
custom of making different strokes and different parts of curves of varying
thickness became common in Roman inscriptions, which developed a
monumental style of their own, varying from period to period. Inscriptions can
often be approximately dated by the style of the cutting as well as by the
shapes of the letters; skill in doing this can only be acquired by a careful
and minute study of originals and facsimiles. (cf. dating methodologies in archaeology.)
Inscriptions vary greatly in size according to the position
where they were intended to be read, their purpose, and the skill of the
cutter. Some inscriptions are of great length, the longest, a statement of
accounts of the temple at Delos, under Athenian administration, being nearly half as
long as a book of Thucydides; and many other inscriptions approach this in
length.
Symbols and forms of writing
Most of the forms of writing known to us originated in some system of picture-writing (cf. also pictography, which developed into a hieroglyphic system. Such systems appear to have originated independently in different parts of the world — in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, among the Hittites and in China and America. The evidence for all of these is mainly to be found in inscriptions. The development from Ideographs (or direct representation of an object or idea) to symbols of phonetic value, and so to syllabaries or alphabets, took place in many different systems to various degrees. But the first people to invent a completely alphabetic system of writing were the Phoenicians, from whom the Greeks borrowed (some scholars believe, but with no proving) it with certain modifications and improvements. From the Greeks was derived the Latin, and from the two all the alphabets of European peoples. It is still a matter of dispute whether the Phoenician was derived from the Egyptian.
Position or place
The position or place of inscriptions depends greatly upon
their purpose or intention. When they have a direct relation to the sculptures,
reliefs or paintings with which they are associated, they often form a kind of
pattern to fill the background or vacant spaces between the figures; but
sometimes, especially in Mesopotamian statues or reliefs, they are cut right
across the figures without any regard to the artistic effect. In late Greek or
Roman work it is usual to cut any inscription relative to a statue or relief
upon the basis on which this is mounted; but short inscriptions such as
dedications or artists' signatures are often placed in some inconspicuous
position upon the work itself. In the case of painted vases, the inscriptions
relative to the subject represented are usually painted; but dedications and
other inscriptions are often incised after the vase has been fired.
In Egypt, inscriptions were often inscribed or painted upon
inner walls of tombs, whether they referred to religious belief or ritual, or
to the honours and possessions of the deceased; they were intended for his
benefit and convenience rather than for the information of others, so as to
perpetuate his familiar surroundings, not to make him live in the memory of his
successors. The information which we derive from such inscriptions is
invaluable to us; but such was not the intention with which they were made. On
the other hand, inscriptions which were intended to be seen by the public and
to perpetuate a record of events, or to supply useful information, were usually
placed in places of common resort, above all in temples and sacred precincts.
Sometimes they were cut on convenient rock faces, sometimes upon the walls of
temples or other buildings. Most frequently the slabs of marble (stelae),
stone metal or other material upon which the inscriptions were incised were set
up in convenient positions to be read, in any places of public resort. This was
the method of publication of all laws, decrees and official notices, of
treaties and contracts, of honours to officials or private citizens, of
religious dedications and prescriptions of ritual. Inscribed tombstones
were set up over graves, which were usually placed along the chief roads
leading out of a town, the most familiar example being the sacred way from
Athens to Eleusis.
Inscriptions commemorative of victories or other great events were only in
exceptional cases erected upon the spot; more often such memorials were set up
in some great religious centre such as Delphi
or Olympia. But boundary stones were necessarily
placed on the line which they defined.
There are many epigraphs on the world. such as : Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Rafles. but i also find another expert of epigraphy. he is Ramaschandran Nagaswamy.
He
(born 10 August 1930) is an Indian historian,
archaeologist
and epigraphist
who is known for his work on temple inscriptions and art history
of Tamil Nadu.
He served as the founder-Director of the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department.
He was also instrumental in starting the annual Chidambaram Natyanjali
festival in 1980.
this is link of about him. http://natmus.dk/historisk-viden/forskning/forskningsprojekter/tranquebar-initiativet/projektdeltagere/nagaswamy-r/
